Agoraphobia
Primer
Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder where an individual has intense fears about at least two different types of situations, with the fear being that escape may be difficult or help may be unavailable if panic-like symptoms occur.
Epidemiology
The annual prevalence of agoraphobia is about 1.7%.
The incidence peaks in late adolescence and early adulthood.
Females are twice as likely as males to experience agoraphobia.
Prognosis
The course of agoraphobia is usually persistent and chronic.
If untreated, the remission rate is around 10%.
More than 33% of individuals with agoraphobia are homebound and unable have gainful employment.
Comorbidity
Other anxiety disorders such as specific phobias, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder are common.
Major depressive disorder, PTSD, and alcohol use disorder are also common as well, typically as a secondary result of agoraphobia.
Risk Factors
Anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, substance use disorders, and personality disorders, can be comorbid with agoraphobia.
Temperamental factors such as anxiety sensitivity (belief that anxiety symptoms are harmful)
Environmental factors such as reduced warmth and increased overprotection by parental figures, and adverse childhood events are risk factors.
The heritability for agoraphobia is is 61%., and has the most genetic association of the phobias.
Cultural
DSM-IV to DSM 5 Change
The DSM-5 created agoraphobia as a separate diagnosis, whereas in the previous version, DSM-IV, panic disorder could be diagnosed as “panic disorder with agoraphobia” or “panic disorder without agoraphobia.” Thus, much of the research on agoraphobia is based on the DSM-IV definition.
DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
Criterion A
Marked fear or anxiety about at least 2
of the following 5 situations:
Public transportation (e.g. - automobiles, buses, trains, ships, planes)
Open spaces (e.g. - parking lots, malls, marketplaces, bridges)
Enclosed places (e.g. - rooms, shops, theatres, cinemas)
Crowds or standing in line
Being outside of home alone
Criterion B
The individual fears or avoids these situations because of thoughts that:
Escape might be difficult, or
Help might not be available in the event of developing panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms (e.g. - fear of falling or fear of incontinence in the elderly).
Criterion C
The agoraphobic situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.
Criterion D
The agoraphobic situations are actively avoided, require the presence of a companion, or are endured with intense fear or anxiety.
Criterion E
The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the agoraphobic situations and to the sociocultural context.
Criterion F
The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6
months or more.
Criterion G
The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
Criterion H
If another medical condition (e.g. - inflammatory bowel disease, Parkinson’s disease) is present, the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is clearly excessive.
Criterion I
The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder:
Note: Agoraphobia is diagnosed irrespective of the presence of
panic disorder. If an individual’s presentation meets criteria for panic disorder and agoraphobia, both diagnoses should be assigned.
Panic Attack Specifier
Specify if:
Sweating
Trembling or shaking
Unsteady, dizziness, light-headed, or faint
Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from one self)
Excessive/accelerated heart rate, palpitations, or pounding heart
Nausea or abdominal distress
Tingling, numbness, parathesesias
Shortness of breath
Fear of losing control or “going crazy”
Fear of dying
Choking feelings
Chest pain or discomfort
Chills or heat sensations
Note: The symptoms presented in this specifier are for the purpose of identifying a panic attack. However, panic attacks are
not a mental disorder. Panic attacks can occur in the context of
any anxiety disorder as well as other mental disorders (e.g. -
depressive disorders,
posttraumatic stress disorder,
substance use disorders) and some medical conditions (e.g. - cardiac, respiratory, vestibular, gastrointestinal). When the presence of a panic attack is identified, it should be noted as a specifier (e.g. - “social anxiety disorder with panic attacks”). For
panic disorder, the presence of panic attack is contained within the criteria for the disorder and panic attack is not used as a specifier.
Note: Culture-specific symptoms (e.g. - tinnitus, neck soreness, headache, uncontrollable screaming or crying) may be seen. Such symptoms should not count as one of the four required symptoms.
Signs and Symptoms
Individuals with agoraphobia frequently believe that escape from such their feared situations might be difficult (e.g. - “I won't be able to get out of here”) or that help might be unavailable (e.g. - “There will be nobody there to help me”) when the panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms occur.
Beyond the panic attack symptoms (see above), other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms include symptoms such as:
Vomiting and inflammatory bowel symptoms
In older adults, a fear of falling
In children, a sense of disorientation and getting lost
It is important to recognize that the fear or anxiety is evoked nearly every time the individual comes into contact with the feared situation.
The avoidance can become so impairing that the person is completely homebound and refuses to leave.
Screening and Rating Scales
Pathophysiology
Differential Diagnosis
When diagnostic criteria for agoraphobia and another disorder are fully met, both diagnoses should be assigned, unless the fear, anxiety, or avoidance of agoraphobia is attributable to the other disorder. Weighting of criteria and clinical judgment may be helpful in some cases.
Investigations
Physical Exam
Treatment
The treatment for agoraphobia is similar to treatment for
panic disorder, as most studies have been done under the DSM-IV criteria (and agoraphobia was a subtype in panic disorder).
Guidelines
Panic Disorder Guidelines
Guideline | Location | Year | PDF | Website |
Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Anxiety, Posttraumatic Stress and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders | Canada | 2014 | - | Link |
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) | UK | 2011, 2019 | - | Link |
American Psychiatric Association (APA) | USA | 2009 | - | • Guideline (2009)
• Quick Reference Guide |
Royal Australian and New Zealand
College of Psychiatrists (RANZCP) | AUS, NZ | 2018 | - | Link |
Resources
For Providers
Articles
Research
1)
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.
2)
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.
3)
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.
4)
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.
5)
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.
6)
Katzman, M. A., Bleau, P., Blier, P., Chokka, P., Kjernisted, K., & Van Ameringen, M. (2014). Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders. BMC psychiatry, 14(1), 1-83.
7)
Bandelow, B., Brunner, E., Broocks, A., Beinroth, D., Hajak, G., Pralle, L., & Rüther, E. (1998). The use of the Panic and Agoraphobia Scale in a clinical trial. Psychiatry Research, 77(1), 43-49.
8)
Katzman, M. A., Bleau, P., Blier, P., Chokka, P., Kjernisted, K., & Van Ameringen, M. (2014). Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders. BMC psychiatry, 14(1), 1-83.