Differences

Last edited on April 30, 2020

This shows you the differences between two versions of the page.

--- anxiety:agoraphobia [on May 1, 2019]
+++ anxiety:agoraphobia [on March 29, 2021] (current)
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 ===== Primer =====
-**Agoraphobia** is an anxiety disorder characterized by symptoms of anxiety in situations where an individual perceives the environment to be unsafe with no easy escape.
+**Agoraphobia** is an [[anxiety:home|anxiety disorder]] where an individual has intense fears about at least two different types of situations, with the fear being that escape may be difficult or help may be unavailable if panic-like symptoms occur.
-==== Epidemiology ====
+== Epidemiology ==
-The lifetime prevalence of agoraphobia is 5% in the general population.
+  * The annual prevalence of agoraphobia is about 1.7%.[(American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.)]
-===== Diagnostic Criteria =====
+  * The incidence peaks in late adolescence and early adulthood.
-<WRAP group>
+  * Females are twice as likely as males to experience agoraphobia.
-<WRAP half column>
+== Prognosis ==
+  * The course of agoraphobia is usually persistent and chronic.
+  * If untreated, the remission rate is around 10%.
+  * More than 33% of individuals with agoraphobia are homebound and unable have gainful employment.[(American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.)]
+== Comorbidity ==
+  * Other anxiety disorders such as specific phobias, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder are common.
+    * These may precede the onset of agoraphobia.[(American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.)]
+  * Major depressive disorder, PTSD, and alcohol use disorder are also common as well, typically as a secondary result of agoraphobia.
+== Risk Factors ==
+  * Anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, substance use disorders, and personality disorders, can be comorbid with agoraphobia.
+  * Temperamental factors such as anxiety sensitivity (belief that anxiety symptoms are harmful)
+  * Environmental factors such as reduced warmth and increased overprotection by parental figures, and adverse childhood events are risk factors.
+  * The heritability for agoraphobia is is 61%.[(American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.)], and has the most genetic association of the phobias.
+== Cultural ==
+  * What counts as avoidance is difficult to judge aross cultures and sociocultural contexts (e.g. - it may be socioculturally appropriate for orthodox Muslim women to avoid leaving the house alone, and this is not indicative of agoraphobia).[(American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA.)]
+==== DSM-IV to DSM 5 Change ====
+<alert type="info" icon="fa fa-book fa-lg fa-fw">
+See also:
+  * **[[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24865357/|Asmundson, G. J., Taylor, S., & AJ Smits, J. (2014). Panic disorder and agoraphobia: An overview and commentary on DSM‐5 changes. Depression and Anxiety, 31(6), 480-486.]]**
+  * **[[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519704/table/ch3.t10/|Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia Criteria Changes from DSM-IV to DSM-5.]]**
+</alert>
+The DSM-5 created agoraphobia as a separate diagnosis, whereas in the previous version, DSM-IV, panic disorder could be diagnosed as "panic disorder with agoraphobia" or "panic disorder without agoraphobia." Thus, much of the research on agoraphobia is based on the DSM-IV definition.[([[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25081580/|Katzman, M. A., Bleau, P., Blier, P., Chokka, P., Kjernisted, K., & Van Ameringen, M. (2014). Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders. BMC psychiatry, 14(1), 1-83.]])]
+===== DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria =====
 == Criterion A ==
 Marked fear or anxiety about at least ''2'' of the following 5 situations:
-  - {{fa>bus fa-fw fa-3x}} **Public transportation** (e.g. - automobiles, buses, trains, ships, planes)
+  - {{fa>bus fa-fw}} **Public transportation** (e.g. - automobiles, buses, trains, ships, planes)
-  - {{fa>shopping-basket fa-fw fa-lg}} **Open spaces** (e.g. - parking lots, malls, marketplaces, bridges)
+  - {{fa>shopping-basket fa-fw}} **Open spaces** (e.g. - parking lots, malls, marketplaces, bridges)
-  - {{fa>film fa-fw fa-lg}} **Enclosed places** (e.g. - rooms, shops, theatres, cinemas)
+  - {{fa>film fa-fw}} **Enclosed places** (e.g. - rooms, shops, theatres, cinemas)
-  - {{fa>users fa-fw fa-lg}} **Crowds or standing in line**
+  - {{fa>users fa-fw}} **Crowds or standing in line**
-  - {{fa>home fa-fw fa-lg}} **Being outside of home alone**
+  - {{fa>home fa-fw}} **Being outside of home alone**
 == Criterion B ==
-The individual fears or avoids these situations because of thoughts that (1) escape might be difficult //or// (2) help might not be available in the event of developing panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms (e.g. - fear of falling or fear of incontinence in the elderly).
+The individual fears or avoids these situations because of thoughts that:
+  - **Escape might be difficult**, //or//
+  - **Help might not be available** in the event of developing panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms (e.g. - fear of falling or fear of incontinence in the elderly).
 == Criterion C ==
-The agoraphobic situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety
+The agoraphobic situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety.
 == Criterion D ==
 The agoraphobic situations are actively avoided, require the presence of a companion, or are endured with intense fear or anxiety.
-</WRAP>
-<WRAP half column>
 == Criterion E ==
@@ Line 36: / Line 63: @@
 == Criterion G ==
-The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
+The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
 == Criterion H ==
@@ Line 44: / Line 71: @@
 The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder:
   * The symptoms are not confined to a [[anxiety:phobia|specific phobia]], situational type
-  * Social situations ([[anxiety:social-anxiety|social anxiety disorder]])
+  * Do not involve only social situations ([[anxiety:social-anxiety|social anxiety disorder]])
-  * Relate exclusively to obsessions ([[ocd:1-ocd|obsessive-compulsive disorder]])
+  * Do not relate exclusively to obsessions ([[ocd:1-ocd|obsessive-compulsive disorder]])
-  * Perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance ([[ocd:body-dysmorphic|body dysmorphic disorder]])
+  * Do not relate to defects or flaws in physical appearance ([[ocd:body-dysmorphic|body dysmorphic disorder]])
-  * Reminders of traumatic events ([[trauma-and-stressors:ptsd|post-traumatic stress disorder]])
+  * Do not relate to reminders of traumatic events ([[trauma-and-stressors:ptsd|post-traumatic stress disorder]])
-  * Fear of separation ([[anxiety:separation|separation anxiety disorder]]).
+  * Do not relate to fear of separation ([[anxiety:separation|separation anxiety disorder]]).
 <callout>
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 </callout>
-</WRAP>
+{{page>anxiety:gad#specifiers&nouser&noheader&nodate&nofooter}}
-<WRAP third column>
+==== Signs and Symptoms ====
+  * Individuals with agoraphobia frequently believe that escape from such their feared situations might be difficult (e.g. - "I won't be able to get out of here") or that help might be unavailable (e.g. - "There will be nobody there to help me") when the panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms occur.
+  * Beyond the panic attack symptoms (see above), other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms include symptoms such as:
+    * Vomiting and inflammatory bowel symptoms
+    * In older adults, a fear of falling
+    * In children, a sense of disorientation and getting lost
+  * It is important to recognize that the fear or anxiety is evoked nearly //every time// the individual comes into contact with the feared situation.
+  * The avoidance can become so impairing that the person is completely homebound and refuses to leave.
+===== Screening and Rating Scales =====
+  * Panic and Agoraphobia Scale (PAS)[([[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10710174/|Bandelow, B., Brunner, E., Broocks, A., Beinroth, D., Hajak, G., Pralle, L., & Rüther, E. (1998). The use of the Panic and Agoraphobia Scale in a clinical trial. Psychiatry Research, 77(1), 43-49.]])]
+===== Pathophysiology =====
+<alert icon="fa fa-arrow-circle-right fa-lg fa-fw" type="success">
+See also article: **[[anxiety:panic#pathophysiology|Panic Disorder: Pathophysiology]]**
+</alert>
+===== Differential Diagnosis =====
+When diagnostic criteria for agoraphobia and another disorder are fully met, both diagnoses should be assigned, unless the fear, anxiety, or avoidance of agoraphobia is attributable to the other disorder. Weighting of criteria and clinical judgment may be helpful in some cases.
+  * **[[anxiety:phobia|Specific phobia, situational type]]**
+    * Differentiating agoraphobia from situational specific phobia can be challenging in some cases, because these conditions share similar symptoms.
+    * Specific phobia, situational type, should be diagnosed instead of agoraphobia if the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is limited to just ''1'' of the agoraphobic situations.
+    * If there are fears from ''2'' or more agoraphobic situations, a diagnosis of agoraphobia is warranted. Thus, if the situation is feared for reasons other than panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms (e.g. - fears of being directly harmed by the situation itself, such as fear of being bitten by a dog), then the diagnosis of specific phobia is more appropriate.
+  * **[[anxiety:separation|Separation anxiety disorder]]**
+    * In separation anxiety disorder, the thoughts are about be away from significant others and the home environment (i.e. - parents or other attachment figures). Contrast this with agoraphobia, where the focus is on panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms in the two or more feared situations.
+  * **[[anxiety:social-anxiety|Social anxiety disorder (social phobia)]]**
+    * In social anxiety disorder, the focus is on fear of being negatively evaluated.
+  * **[[anxiety:panic|Panic disorder]]**
+    * Agoraphobia should not be diagnosed if the avoidance behaviors associated with the panic attacks do not extend to avoidance of ''2'' or more agoraphobic situations.
+  * **Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)**
+    * Acute stress disorder and PTSD can be differentiated from agoraphobia by asking whether the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is related only to situations that remind the individual of a traumatic event.
+    * If the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is restricted to reminders of trauma, and if the avoidance behavior does not extend to two or more agoraphobic situations, then agoraphobia should not be diagnosed.
+  * **Major depressive disorder**
+    * In major depressive disorder, the individual may avoid leaving the home because of apathy, loss of energy, low self-esteem, and anhedonia. If the avoidance is unrelated to fears of panic-like or other incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms, then agoraphobia should not be diagnosed.
+  * **Other medical conditions**
+    * Agoraphobia is not diagnosed if the avoidance of situations is due to a physiological consequence of a medical condition, based on history, laboratory findings, and a physical examination. This includes medical conditions such as neurodegenerative disorders with motor symptoms (e.g. - Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis) and cardiovascular disorders.
+    * Individuals with some medical conditions may avoid situations due to realistic concerns about being incapacitated (e.g. - fainting in transient ischemic attacks) or being embarrassed (e.g. - diarrhea in Crohn's disease). Thus, the diagnosis of agoraphobia should be given only when the fear or avoidance is clearly in //excess// of that usually associated with these medical conditions.
+===== Investigations =====
+  * Depending on the initial presenting symptoms (e.g. - dizziness, tachycardia), potential investigations can include: CBC, fasting glucose, fasting lipid profiles, electrolytes, liver enzymes, serum bilirubin, serum creatinine, urinalysis, [[meds:urine-drug-screen|urine toxicology]] for substance use, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).[([[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25081580/|Katzman, M. A., Bleau, P., Blier, P., Chokka, P., Kjernisted, K., & Van Ameringen, M. (2014). Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders. BMC psychiatry, 14(1), 1-83.]])]
+  * An ECG and beta-HCG should be ordered if relevant.
-</WRAP>
+===== Physical Exam =====
-</WRAP>
+  * As clinically indicated.
+===== Treatment =====
+<alert icon="fa fa-arrow-circle-right fa-lg fa-fw" type="success">
+See main article: **[[anxiety:panic#treatment|Panic Disorder: Treatment]]**
+</alert>
+  * The treatment for agoraphobia is similar to treatment for [[anxiety:panic|panic disorder]], as most studies have been done under the DSM-IV criteria (and agoraphobia was a subtype in panic disorder).
+===== Guidelines =====
+<alert icon="fa fa-arrow-circle-right fa-lg fa-fw" type="success">
+See also: **[[teaching:clinical-practice-guidelines-cpg|]]**
+</alert>
-===== Treatment ====
+{{page>teaching:clinical-practice-guidelines-cpg#panic-disorder&nouser&noheader&nodate&nofooter}}
-==== Psychotherapy ====
-CBT is the treatment of choice.
-==== Medications ====
-SSRIs and SNRIs are recommended. Anxiolytics are not recommended.
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 <WRAP group>
 <WRAP quarter column>
-==== For Patients ====
+== For Patients ==
   * [[https://www.anxietycanada.com/|AnxietyCanada: Patient Resources]]
@@ Line 79: / Line 149: @@
 <WRAP quarter column>
-==== For Providers ====
+== For Providers ==
 </WRAP>